Start hereIn A True Relation, written in 1608, Smith describes his meeting with Powhatan as cordial, with no threat of death and no rescue. So where does the famous rescue scene come from?
Many founding stories and royal legends reached us through accounts written long after the event. Below: eleven of them, the oldest record we found for each, and what the record can teach you.
The verdicts
1. What the record shows, at a glance
Most of these eleven stories first appear in writing long after the events they describe.
| Story | Told about | What the record shows |
|---|---|---|
| The Declaration was signed on 4 July 1776 | The Continental Congress | Adopted on 4 July; the journal records the signing on 2 August |
| The Liberty Bell rang for independence | Philadelphia, July 1776 | No record shows it ringing then |
| Franklin wanted the turkey as the national bird | Benjamin Franklin | Praise for the turkey in a 1784 letter, not a proposal for the seal |
| Betsy Ross sewed the first flag | Betsy Ross | A family story, first told in public in 1870 |
| Pocahontas saved John Smith | Pocahontas and John Smith | Smith’s 1608 account has no rescue; his 1624 book has a dramatic one |
| The Pilgrims landed on Plymouth Rock | The Mayflower passengers | Pointed out in 1741; first in print in 1775 |
| A she-wolf raised Romulus and Remus | The founders of Rome | Livy told it as a tradition and gave a plainer reading |
| Constantine saw a sign in the sky | Emperor Constantine | Two early accounts tell it in different ways |
| Cnut tried to command the tide | King Cnut | In the oldest telling, the scene ends with Cnut saying a king’s power is empty |
| Alfred let the cakes burn | King Alfred | Added to his biography later; first told in an eleventh-century life of a saint |
| Caligula made his horse a consul | Emperor Caligula | Ancient writers say he planned or promised it |
For each one, two questions matter: when was it first written down, and by whom?
2. Independence, the bell and the bird
Two stories about July 1776, and one about the national bird, look different in the records.
Signed on 4 July
Partly The Declaration of Independence was signed on 4 July 1776. Congress adopted it on 4 July; its journal records the signing on 2 August.
How sure: Strong the National Archives says so in plain words, citing the journal of Congress.
On 2 July 1776, the Lee Resolution for independence was adopted by 12 of the 13 colonies, with New York not voting. Congress kept working on the Declaration’s wording until the late morning of 4 July, when it was officially adopted. The copy printed on 4 July carried only two names, John Hancock and Charles Thomson.
On 2 August, the journal of Congress records that the clean copy “was signed”. In the end 56 delegates signed, though not all of them were there on 2 August. In a letter of 3 July, John Adams wrote: “The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America.”
So 4 July is the day of the vote, and 2 August is the signing day the journal records. For example, when a story gives one neat date for a long process, ask which step that date belongs to.
The Liberty Bell rang for independence
Can't confirm The Liberty Bell rang out to announce independence in July 1776. No record shows it ringing then; the bell got its name and its fame decades later.
How sure: Strong the National Park Service, which looks after the bell, says there is no evidence it rang.
The National Park Service says “there is no evidence that the bell rang on July 4 or 8, 1776”. The same page says there is evidence that it rang for the Stamp Act tax and its repeal.
An abolitionist paper, the Anti-Slavery Record, first called it the Liberty Bell in 1835. Millions of Americans came to know the bell through George Lippard’s 1847 fictional story “Ring, Grandfather, Ring”.
So the bell’s link to independence grew later, through its name and a popular story. For example, when a famous object “did” something on a famous day, look for a record made on that day.
Franklin and the turkey
Partly Benjamin Franklin wanted the turkey as the national bird. He praised the turkey over the eagle in a private letter, but he never proposed it for the Great Seal.
How sure: Strong his letter survives in print, and the National Constitution Center traces how the seal was chosen.
In a letter of 26 January 1784 to his daughter, Sarah Bache, Franklin wrote about the eagle on the badge of the Society of the Cincinnati. He wrote: “I wish the Bald Eagle had not been chosen as the Representative of our Country; he is a Bird of bad moral Character”. He added that the turkey “is in comparison a much more respectable Bird, and withal a true original Native of America.” He also called the turkey “a little vain and silly” but “a Bird of Courage”.
The National Constitution Center notes that the turkey “was never a finalist” when Congress approved the seal’s design on 20 June 1782. For the seal, Franklin had proposed a scene of Moses and Pharaoh. In 1775 he had suggested the rattlesnake as a national symbol. It was Charles Thomson, the secretary of Congress, who made the bald eagle the focus of the seal’s front.
So Franklin’s turkey lines are real, but he wrote them to his daughter about a badge, about a year and a half after the seal was approved. For example, when a famous person “wanted” something, check whether they asked for it in public or mused about it in a letter.
3. Stories first written down generations later
These three stories were first written down long after the events, from family memory or from one man’s later account.
Betsy Ross and the first flag
Can't confirm Betsy Ross sewed the first American flag. The story comes from her family, first told in public in 1870; no record from the time confirms it.
How sure: Moderate no record confirms or rules it out, while her long career as a flagmaker is well recorded.
Her grandson, William Canby, first told the story in a speech to the Historical Society of Pennsylvania in 1870. Canby and other relatives signed sworn statements that Betsy herself had told them the story. The Betsy Ross House, which tells her story, notes the “absence of written records to prove the story”, but says “there is mounting evidence leading historians to believe the legend could be true”. It points to her ties to George Ross, her late husband’s uncle, and to bed hangings that she and her husband made for Washington in 1774.
The historian Marla Miller writes that historians and the public “greeted the tale with skepticism”. She adds that “no archival evidence then – or since – has confirmed” that Ross made the first U.S. flag.
The records do show a working flagmaker: on 29 May 1777, the Pennsylvania State Navy Board paid her “for making flags”. Miller says the hundred or so flags recorded in archives are “a fraction of her total output”.
So the first-flag story rests on family memory, and her flagmaking rests on records. For example, when a story comes from a family, value it as family memory, and then look for papers from the time.
Pocahontas and John Smith
Still argued Pocahontas threw herself over John Smith to save him from execution. Smith’s earliest account has no rescue; the scene appears in his later books, and what it meant is still argued.
How sure: Unsettled the National Park Service says it has been debated for centuries, and the Mattaponi oral history tells it differently.
In A True Relation, written in 1608, Smith describes his meeting with Powhatan as cordial, with no threat of death and no rescue. The first published mention of the rescue is in Smith’s New England Trials, in 1622. His Generall Historie of 1624 gives a “detailed, dramatic description” of her saving him.
The National Park Service at Jamestown says whether it happened “has been debated for centuries”. One theory holds that it was an adoption ceremony, and that Smith’s life was never in danger.
The National Park Service describes a 2007 book by Dr. Linwood “Little Bear” Custalow and Angela L. Daniel “Silver Star”, “based on the sacred oral history of the Mattaponi tribe”. In that account, “The ‘rescue’ was a ceremony, initiating Smith as another chief,” and “Smith’s life was never in danger.” It adds that Pocahontas would not have been there, as children were not allowed at religious rituals. When the English arrived in 1607, she was about eleven years old.
The sources we read leave the question open.
So the scene comes from Smith’s later books, and two readings compete: a near-execution, or a ceremony he did not understand. For example, when the only witness adds a scene years later, read his first account too.
Plymouth Rock
Can't confirm The Pilgrims stepped ashore on Plymouth Rock in 1620. Neither early account of the landing mentions a rock; an elderly man pointed it out as the landing place in 1741, and it first appears in print in 1775.
How sure: Moderate the two early accounts are silent, and the rock’s story rests on one old man’s memory.
Two accounts describe the 1620 landing: William Bradford’s Of Plymouth Plantation and the 1622 book known as Mourt’s Relation. Pilgrim Hall Museum says both “simply say that the Pilgrims landed”, and neither mentions a rock. A “Grat Rock” on the waterfront first appears in the town records in February 1715/16.
In 1741, Elder Thomas Faunce, born about 1647, pointed out the rock as the landing place. He was passing on what he had heard from his father, John Faunce, who had arrived in Plymouth in 1623. By then, the museum notes, “Over 120 years had passed” since the passengers came ashore.
Pilgrim Hall says “the earliest reference to the tradition of Plymouth Rock as a landing place appears in print in 1775”. It calls James Thacher’s 1832 history of the town “the first published account of the story of Plymouth Rock and what it symbolized to Plymouth residents in the late colonial era”. Faunce “would have been only about six years old when his father died, but he had four older siblings who may have also been inheritors of the story”, the museum adds.
So Plymouth Rock rests on a memory handed from father to son and told over 120 years after the landing. For example, when a landmark marks an event, ask when it was first linked to that event.
4. Founding stories from Rome
Even ancient writers marked their founding stories as tradition, or told them in different ways.
Romulus, Remus and the she-wolf
Can't confirm A she-wolf nursed Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome. The Roman historian Livy told it as a tradition, and gave a plainer reading beside it.
How sure: Strong Livy says himself that he will neither affirm nor refute such stories.
In the preface to his history, Livy says he has “no intention either to affirm or refute” the stories from before Rome was built. He calls such stories “suitable rather to the fictions of poetry than to the genuine records of history”.
When he tells the story, he opens with “The tradition is”, and describes a thirsty she-wolf finding the infants. He then reports that some thought the shepherd’s wife, Laurentia, “was called Lupa among the shepherds, from her being a common prostitute”. On that view, he writes, this “gave rise to the surprising story”.
So Livy himself offered the she-wolf as tradition, with a plainer reading next to it. For example, when an ancient writer says “the tradition is” or “they say”, he is telling you how sure he was.
Constantine’s sign in the sky
Can't confirm Before a battle, Constantine saw a sign in the sky with the words “Conquer by this”. One early writer reports it from the emperor’s own sworn word; another describes only a dream.
How sure: Moderate the two early Christian accounts we read disagree on what happened.
Eusebius writes that the emperor told him the story “long afterwards” and “confirmed his statement by an oath”. In his telling, Constantine saw at about noon “a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun”, with the words “Conquer by this”. Eusebius adds that Christ then appeared to Constantine in his sleep.
Lactantius describes only a dream, in which Constantine was told to put the heavenly sign on his soldiers’ shields. In his account, this happens as Constantine’s army is camped opposite the Milvian bridge, near Rome.
So the vision in the sky rests on the emperor’s own word, given long afterwards, and a second early writer has a dream instead. For example, when two early accounts disagree, keep both rather than choosing the more dramatic one.
5. Royal legends in their oldest form
Each of these three royal stories looks different in its oldest written form.
Cnut and the tide
Doesn't hold up King Cnut ordered the tide back because he thought he could rule the sea. In the oldest telling we found, the scene ends with Cnut saying a king’s power is empty.
How sure: Moderate the story seems to rest on one chronicler, Henry of Huntingdon, writing within about 90 years of Cnut’s death.
Henry of Huntingdon tells how Cnut had a seat placed on the shore as the tide was coming in. Cnut commands the sea not to wet “the feet and the robe of your lord”. When the tide wets him, he says: “Let all men know how empty and worthless is the power of kings”. Henry adds that from then on Cnut never wore his crown of gold.
Henry gives the scene as one of three times Cnut showed his “greatness of mind”. His 1853 translator notes that the story is not in the Saxon Chronicle and “appears to rest on the authority of Henry of Huntingdon”. He adds that Henry lived “within 90 years of the death of Canute”.
So the famous scene is a lesson in humility, and it reaches us through one chronicler. For example, a story retold as a joke about arrogance can begin as a story about the opposite.
Alfred and the cakes
Can't confirm King Alfred once let the cakes burn. The story is not in Asser’s life of Alfred; it was added to that book later. It is first recorded in Latin in a life of St Neot written in the eleventh century, before the Norman Conquest.
How sure: Moderate the earliest telling we found is in a saint’s life from the eleventh century, rather than a record of his reign.
Albert S. Cook’s 1906 translation of Asser’s Life of King Alfred leaves out “the story of Alfred and the cakes”. His preface says it came from additions to the manuscript made by Archbishop Parker, “which modern critical scholarship has at length excised”.
Cook’s note says Parker took the story from the Annals of St Neots. Writing in 1906, Cook added that the story “cannot be proved to antedate the Norman Conquest”. A 2024 book, the Cambridge Anthology of British Medieval Latin, says the story “is first recorded in Latin in the first Life of St. Neot, written in the eleventh century, before the Norman Conquest”.
Our reading: the cakes story is old, but it is not Asser’s, and we found no way to trace it to Alfred’s own time; its oldest telling is in a saint’s life from the eleventh century. For example, when a story is said to come “from” a famous old book, check a modern edition of that book.
Caligula’s horse
Doesn't hold up The Roman emperor Caligula made his horse a consul. The ancient writers say he planned or promised it, not that it happened.
How sure: Strong both ancient accounts we read stop short of saying it happened.
Suetonius says the horse, Incitatus, had “a stall of marble, a manger of ivory”. He then adds: “it is also said that he planned to make him consul”.
Cassius Dio writes that Caligula “even promised to appoint him consul”. Dio adds that it was “a promise that he would certainly have carried out if he had lived longer”.
So the horse was pampered, and the consulship stayed a plan or a promise. For example, watch how “planned to” turns into “did” as a story is retold.
6. How to trace a founding story yourself
Six questions help you trace any founding story back to its oldest form.
- Find the oldest account you can, and note its date.
- Count the years between the event and that account.
- Ask who told it: a witness, a relative, or a later writer.
- Look for words like “the tradition is” or “it is said” in the old text.
- If two early accounts disagree, keep both.
- When you pass it on, say “first written down in” and “the earliest we found”.
A primary source is a record made at the time, or by someone who was there. For example, Smith’s 1608 True Relation is a primary source for his captivity, written by the man it happened to.
We have traced more famous lines in Famous Lines from Founders, Kings and Generals and in quotes that change when you read the next sentence.
Quick answers
Was the Declaration of Independence signed on 4 July 1776?
Congress adopted it on 4 July; its journal records the signing on 2 August. In the end 56 delegates signed, though not all of them were there on 2 August.
Did the Liberty Bell ring for independence?
The National Park Service says "there is no evidence that the bell rang on July 4 or 8, 1776". An abolitionist paper, the Anti-Slavery Record, first called it the Liberty Bell in 1835.
Did Benjamin Franklin want the turkey as the national bird?
He praised the turkey over the eagle in a private letter, but he never proposed it for the Great Seal. For the seal, Franklin had proposed a scene of Moses and Pharaoh.
Did Pocahontas save John Smith?
Smith's earliest account has no rescue; the scene appears in his later books, and what it meant is still argued. One theory holds that it was an adoption ceremony, and that Smith's life was never in danger.
Did Caligula make his horse a consul?
The ancient writers say he planned or promised it, not that it happened. Suetonius says the horse, Incitatus, had "a stall of marble, a manger of ivory".
Use this
Before you repeat a founding story, find when it was first written down, and by whom.
When was it first written down, and by whom?
Quick quiz
Nothing is scored or saved. Recalling it once now is what makes it last.
1. What does the journal of Congress record for 2 August?
Answer: The signing of the clean copy of the Declaration.Read it again ↑
2. Who first told the story of Betsy Ross sewing the first flag in public?
Answer: Her grandson, William Canby.Read it again ↑
3. In the oldest telling we found, what does Cnut say when the tide wets him?
Answer: That a king's power is empty and worthless.Read it again ↑
How we checked this · Last checked November 2026
- We read the oldest versions we could reach: the National Archives' history of the Declaration, John Adams's letter of 3 July, Franklin's letter to Sarah Bache in a printed edition of his writings, the Pilgrim Hall Museum's account of Plymouth Rock, Livy, Eusebius, Lactantius, Henry of Huntingdon, Asser in Cook's translation, the chapter summary of Alfred and the cakes in the Cambridge Anthology of British Medieval Latin, Suetonius and Cassius Dio.
- For the Liberty Bell, Pocahontas and Betsy Ross we relied on the National Park Service, the Lehigh University Pocahontas Archive, the Betsy Ross House and a historian's article; we did not open Smith's own books or the family's sworn statements.
- Some sites asked us to accept terms or pass a bot check before reading, so we did not open them.
- The Latin and Greek texts were read only in English translation. Every date is the earliest we found; older tellings can still turn up.
Sources
Independence, the bell and the bird
- National Archives, “The Declaration of Independence: A History”.Primary
- J. Adams, letter to Abigail Adams, 3 July 1776, Adams Family Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society (image and transcription).
- National Park Service, Independence National Historical Park, “The Liberty Bell”.Popular
- B. Franklin, letter to Sarah Bache, Passy, 26 January 1784, in A. H. Smyth (ed.), The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 9 (New York and London, 1906), pp. 166–167 (Internet Archive scan).
- S. Bomboy, “Why we don’t have a turkey on our Great Seal”, National Constitution Center, 20 June 2020.Popular
Stories first written down generations later
- Historic Philadelphia, Inc. (Betsy Ross House), “Did She or Didn’t She?”.Popular
- M. Miller, “What Betsy Ross’ real story tells us about women’s work in the Revolution”, The Conversation, 23 March 2026.Scholarly
- Lehigh University, Pocahontas Archive, “The Facts” and “Timeline”.Scholarly
- National Park Service, Historic Jamestowne, “Pocahontas: Her Life and Legend”.Popular
- Pilgrim Hall Museum, “Plymouth Rock”.Scholarly
Founding stories from Rome
- Livy, History of Rome, preface and book 1, chapter 4, trans. D. Spillan (1853) (Project Gutenberg #19725).Primary
- Eusebius, Life of Constantine 1.28–29, trans. E. C. Richardson, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, second series, vol. 1 (1890) (New Advent).Primary
- Lactantius, Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died 44, trans. W. Fletcher, Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 7 (1886) (New Advent).Primary
Royal legends
- Henry of Huntingdon, The Chronicle of Henry of Huntingdon, book 6, trans. T. Forester (London, 1853) (Internet Archive scan).Primary
- Asser, Life of King Alfred, trans. A. S. Cook (Boston, 1906), preface and note 117 (Project Gutenberg #63384).Primary
- C. White (ed.), The Cambridge Anthology of British Medieval Latin, vol. 1 (Cambridge University Press, 2024), “Three Accounts of King Alfred and the Cakes”, chapter summary.Scholarly
- Suetonius, Caligula 55.3, trans. J. C. Rolfe, Loeb Classical Library (1913), LacusCurtius.Primary
- Cassius Dio, Roman History 59.14.7, trans. E. Cary, Loeb Classical Library, vol. 7 (1924), LacusCurtius.Primary
Definition
- Cambridge Dictionary, “primary source”.Popular